As a museum educator, I am fascinated by the opportunities to explore Parshat Shmot through the lens of ancient artifacts. Over the many years that I have worked at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, I have had the opportunity both to study the Ancient Egyptian collection and learn from many expert curators and archeologists. Oftentimes when I learn something new about the collection, I am able to relate it to the story of the Israelites in Ancient Egypt. Throughout my years as a museum educator, I have tried to bring Jewish history to life by observing and studying ancient artifacts. In the past, I have led tours and given lectures (both in-person and virtually) of the Egyptian Art collection to adults, students, children and families of all ages in an effort to help people visualize our history. My work is both exciting and challenging, as there is always new information to learn, ponder and interpret. Reconciling stories and dates from Tanach with Ancient Egyptian artifacts and information can be very tricky, but is definitely always fascinating.
The main question that I am always asked is: “Who was the Pharaoh of the Exodus?” Although it is a simple question, there is no clear-cut answer as Tanach dates and Egyptian chronology are often at odds. According to I Kings 6:1, the Beit Hamikdash was built 480 years after the Exodus, in the fourth year of King Solomon’s rule (approximately 966 BCE). Thus, the Exodus took place around 1446 BCE during the reign of Thutmose III. Thutmose III officially ruled Egypt from 1479-1425 BCE. However, since he became Pharaoh at the age of 2, when his father Thutmose II died, he was co-ruler with step-mother/aunt, Hatshepsut, for the first 21 years of his reign.
Hatshepsut is a fascinating figure in Ancient Egyptian history. She was not supposed to be a ruler—she was the second wife of Thutmose II, who was also her half-brother. (Ancient Egyptian history often reads like a soap opera!) When Thutmose II died, Hatshepsut took the unprecedented step of assuming the title and full powers of a pharaoh herself, becoming co-ruler of Egypt with Thutmose III. She adopted the emblems and titles associated with a pharaoh and even portrayed herself as a male pharaoh in her sculptures and images. Her 21-year reign was a time of peace and prosperity for Egypt. When she died in 1458 BCE, Thutmose III at last got the throne to himself and proceeded to destroy many of the sculptures and images of Hatshepsut as an act of revenge. Thutmose III wanted to eradicate all evidence of Hatshepsut’s rule, possibly to erase her as a powerful female ruler or as an act of revenge for declaring herself Pharaoh over him.
So if Thutmose III is the Pharaoh of the Exodus, then presumably Hatshepsut is the Pharaoh of Oppression (or at least one of them), corroborated by Exodus 2:23, which tells us that the King of Egypt (the King of Oppression) died. There are many interesting ways to read the pesukim in Exodus I with the view of Hatshepsut as Pharaoh of the Oppression. First we read that “A new king arose” (Exodus 1:8). There are various interpretations of the word “chadash”—“new.” Perhaps it refers to a usurper, someone who was not supposed to be king, ie., Hatshepsut. And who would be so familiar with the birthing process and the role of midwives other than a female pharaoh who would order the midwives to “Look at the birthstool (Exodus 1:16)? A very interesting twist to the identity of the Pharaoh of our Oppression!
There are other opinions that say that the date of the Exodus was in fact around 1280 BCE (which doesn’t reconcile with our source in Kings I. (However, dates in Tanach and in Egyptian chronology are often at odds.) The Pharaoh at that time was Ramesses (or Ramses) II, who ruled from around 1279-1213 BCE. Because of his 66-year reign, he is referred to as Ramesses the Great, and was probably the longest-ruling Pharaoh in history. He lived between 90-96 years (at a time when the average life expectancy was 30 years!) and had over 200 wives and 100 children, many of whom he outlived!
The biblical proof that Ramesses II was the Pharaoh of the Exodus is the verse in Exodus 1:11, which tells us that the Jews built the garrison cities of Pithom and Raamses, presumably the city Raamses was named after the reigning monarch. However, there are many problems with this explanation, including the fact that there were 11 Pharaohs named Ramesses in ancient Egypt (Ramesses I-Ramesses XI). Ramesses II was the longest-reigning Ramesses, but there was a Pharaoh named Ramesses who ruled Egypt for around 230 years! In addition, the name “Raamses” was mentioned as a city in Egypt earlier than Exodus. In Genesis 47:11, Yosef settled his family in Goshen, in the region of Raamses, which was much earlier chronologically than the reign of Ramesses II. Thus both the dating of the Exodus in 1280 BCE and the rationale of Ramesses II being the Pharaoh of the Exodus are tenuous at best.
There are other scholarly opinions placing Pharaoh Akhenaten (who reigned from 1353-1336) as the Pharaoh of Oppression. This is hard to substantiate, although according to this opinion, the Pharaoh of the Exodus would be none other than the famous King Tutankhamun Nebkheperure, better known as King Tut. However, since King Tut became Pharaoh at age 9 and only ruled for 10 years (1332-1323 BCE) until his death at age 19, it is hard to imagine him as the Pharaoh who challenged Moshe.
Although there is no definitive answer as to who the Pharaoh of the Exodus was, studying Ancient Egyptian artifacts sheds light on this mystery as well as many others. Through my research and work at the Met, I have discovered many interesting connections between ancient Egyptian artifacts and various stories in Tanach, including examples of baskets similar to Moshe’s Nile basket abode, mirrors similar to the ones the Jewish women used to beautify themselves, and wooden granaries similar to Yosef’s charge. These objects, among the 26,000 Egyptian objects at the Met, are unbelievable relics that bring history to life and can greatly enhance our understanding and appreciation of Sefer Shmot.
Elana Kaplan is a museum educator at the Metropolitan Museum of Art and at the Derfner Judaica Museum. She also created and leads an integrated learning and museum tour program for both adult and school groups. Elana received her BA from Barnard College and a double master’s degree from NYU in Jewish history and museum studies. She and her husband, Jonathan, live in Teaneck and are the proud parents of four children.
