The noun חיל (chayil) appears over 200 times in Tanach.

It has a few different meanings:

1. Army: See, e.g., Exodus 14:28, “chail Pharaoh” (army of Pharaoh, construct form of “chayil.”) The noun has an “army” meaning over 70 times.
2. Wealth, riches: See, e.g., Tehillim 49:7: “Those who trust ‘al chailam’ and boast themselves in the multitude of their riches.” See, similarly, Genesis 34:29 and Deuteronomy 8:17. The noun has a “wealth, riches” meaning over 30 times.
3. Physical strength: See, e.g., Psalms 18:33: “The God who girds me with חיל.” Also, Psalms 33:17 which describes a horse which—despite its strength—cannot escape.
4. Strength in a more abstract way, referring to positive spiritual qualities: See, e.g., Mishlei 31:10: “eishet chayil.” With regard to meanings no. 3 and no. 4, the Even-Shoshan concordance counts 75 instances, without breaking down the two categories separately.

With regard to Boaz, he is described as an “ish gibbor chayil” at Ruth 2:1. The Soncino commentary suggests that the phrase was not a description of physical strength” but meant that he was “endowed with all the finest human qualities.” But Daat Mikra finds some clues in the verses that Boaz had physical strength. It thinks the meanings 2,3 and 4 are all intended.

An interesting phrase is at Mishlei 31:3, addressed to kings: “Do not give your ‘chayil’ to women.” I have seen various interpretations.

As to meanings 1 through 4, most likely it originally meant “physical strength” and then expanded to the other three categories. (For a different view, see Rav Shimshon Rafael Hirsch on Exodus 18:21.)

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With that background, let us look at Exodus 18:21. Here, Yitro instructs Moshe to appoint as judges individuals with special qualities. One of the instructions is to appoint “anshei chayil.” The question becomes: Is he to appoint people who are in an army? Wealthy individuals? Individuals who are physically strong? Or individuals who have “strength” in a different way?

A wide variety of interpretations has been offered.

Here are some:

• Mechilta: Rich people. Another Tannaitic view: “baalei havtachah.” Rashi cites this as the explanation for “anshei emet.” Here is how ArtScroll’s Sapirstein edition translates Rashi’s explanation of “baalei havtachah:” “These are men who inspire confidence, for they are worthy enough for their words to be relied upon … ”
• Rabbi Saadiah (translation from Arabic): “baalei kishronot.” Also, it seems that Rabbi Saadiah views this as the general term and that what follows are the specifics. What follows our phrase at 18:21 is: “They fear God, they are men of truth, they hate unjust gain.”
• Rashi: Wealthy, so that they have no need to flatter or show recognition.
• Rashbam: Men of wealth and “gevurah,” who will not be afraid of anyone.
• Ibn Ezra: Men who have the strength “lisbol hatorach” (to bear the yoke of this difficult position) and who will not be afraid of others.
• Rambam (Hilchot Sanhedrin 2:7): “This refers to people who are mighty in their observance of the mitzvot, who are very demanding of themselves, and who overcome their evil inclination until they possess no unfavorable qualities, and no trace of an unpleasant reputation … The phrase ‘anshei chayil’ also implies that they should have a courageous heart to save an oppressed person from the one oppressing him … ”
• Bechor Shor: Eager to save the oppressed from his oppressor and the victim from the thief.
• Nachmanides: Men who are worthy of leading a large nation. Every assembly and gathering is called “chayil.” He also writes that an “ish chayil” in the administration of justice is one who is “chacham,” “zariz” and “yashar.” Similarly, an “eishet chayil” (Mishlei 31:10) is one who is “zarizah” and knows how to manage a home. The term “anshei chayil” is a general term referring to powers of leadership. Thereafter, additional specific qualities are listed.
• Rabbeinu Bachya: “Anshei chayil” is the general term and what follows are the specifics.
• Ralbag: Strong of heart and not afraid of any man.
• Rav Shimshon Rafael Hirsch: “Able men, such as fear the Lord.”
• Samuel David Luzzatto: Persons of merit. (See Daniel A. Klein edition, page 262.)
• Umberto Cassuto: “Baalei midot tovot.” He cites Mishlei 31:10 as an analogy.
• The Living Torah: “Capable.” The work then adds a long footnote listing many different interpretations: “competent,” “resourceful,” “men with leadership qualities,” “efficient men,” “strong men,” “stronghearted men,” “confident men,” “men with initiative,” “men of status” and “wealthy men.” He ends with a quote from Rambam (a portion of what I wrote above).
• Daat Mikra: Men who have the כח to fulfill the tasks assigned to them. The implication is both physical strength and strength in a non-physical way, i.e., not being afraid of scorn.

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Many of the above saw a parallel with “eishet chayil” of Mishlei 31:10. I find this parallel convincing. I will now discuss this phrase in Mishlei a bit more.

The Complete ArtScroll Siddur, page 359, translates “eishet chayil” as “an accomplished woman.” As is often the case, ArtScroll gives a translation that fits the context but is not the best fit for the word or phrase itself.

Surely, no one is going to translate the above phrase as “military woman.” But I have seen the translation “woman of wealth.” (Some suggest she inherited the wealth.) The phrase appears two other times in Tanach: once at Mishlei 12:4 and the other at Ruth 3:11 (describing Ruth). In the Soncino edition at Mishlei 31:10, at the top (1917 Jewish Publication Society translation), we have “woman of valour.” I believe that “valour” (valor) is a bit different than “strength.” It has more of a connotation of courage (i.e., in the face of danger).

The Soncino commentary on 31:10 then refers the readers to its earlier note on 12:4. There, they had objected to the 1917 Jewish Publication Society translation “virtuous woman.” The commentary points out that the phrase literally means, “a wife of strong character.” I agree and “virtuous” alone does not have that connotation. They suggest further that our phrase “combines the ideas of virtuous disposition and sound intellectual capacity.”

The Daat Mikra on 31:10 writes that our phrase refers to a woman who distinguishes herself with “charitzuta uvefealtanuta” (her diligence and her widespread activities). It adds that the phrase also implies that she distinguishes herself with “yashrah” and “yirat Hashem” and they cite our verse in Yitro.

I think “woman with strength of character” might be the best translation, with its implication of many positive character traits. (The Targum on 31:10 had כשרתא. This word can mean: fit, proper, well-equipped, zealous, industrious and worthy. See Jastrow.)

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When the recital of “eshet chayil” was introduced on Friday night, it was introduced as a praise of the Shechinah, and not of the lady of the home. See B. S. Jacobson, The Sabbath Service, page 126. It seems to have been introduced into the Friday night liturgy, in the 16th century.

It is common among traditional commentaries to interpret “eshet chayil” and the rest of Mishlei 31:10-31 allegorically. It is variously interpreted as a reference to the Shechinah, the Sabbath, the Torah, wisdom and the soul. See The Complete ArtScroll Siddur, page 358.

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I got the idea for this column on Exodus 18:21 from the post at balashon.com on “chayil” on 8/8/24. This post also points out that the modern word “chayal” for “soldier” does not appear in Tanach. It was coined by Eliezer Ben Yehudah (died 1922) from “chayil.” As I stated at the outset, this word already had the “strength” and “army” meanings.

Mitchell First can be reached at [email protected]. He recalls that there used to be an association of Jewish lawyers and judges in New York and they would have a special Shabbat lunch event on “Sabbath Jethro!”